A timeline of the British countryside and farming ************************************************* 15,000 BC ********* Snow and ice had covered much of the countryside and only a few alpine plants lived in the short summer seasons. During periods of thaw, meltwaters would rearrange parts of the landscape as they gouged out and then deposited frost weakened material. Although man was absent from the UK at this time, there is evidence of much earlier activity dating from as far back as 500,000 years ago and our common ancestor from about 200,000 years. About 13,000 years ago the last ice age came to an end. As the snow and ice retreated the ground beneath was exposed. Initially the landscape was barren but increasingly supported life as the first colonising plants took hold. The landscape became similar to the tundra of the high arctic today. A few hunter gatherers would have started to move northwards through Europe as the ice sheets retreated. At this point the UK was still attached to Europe and large parts of the North Sea would have been low lying tundra. 10,000 BC ********* When the ice sheets withdrew the climate became warmer and the countryside began to support the trees and shrubs that colonise bare and infertile ground. The earliest to take up residence were birch, aspen and sallow. These were followed by hazel and pine. Some small numbers of hunter gatherers. Crops - None Livestock - None but large wild cattle, deer, boar, bears and wolves had all began to take up residence. Farming Systems - The population lived by hunting and fishing. Woodland & Hedges - None Social Economy - Very little evidence is available for this period but generally hunting groups were mobile and spent very little time in any one location. Climate - Still much colder than today but warming quite quickly around 8,500 BC encouraging more widespread forestation. 7,000 BC ******** Around 8,500 BC there was a rapid warming in the climate and this provided ideal conditions for the development of deciduous woodland which started to displace the existing pine woodland. By 7000 BC the landscape had become densely covered in woodland - known as the wildwood. Groups of hunter gatherers lived throughout the UK, possibly numbering 20,000. Crops - No farmed crops but the population exploited wild plants producing fruits, berries and seeds. Livestock - None but large wild cattle, red deer, boar and elk were all hunted. Fish and water birds were also important in the diet. Farming Systems - There were no farming systems as such in the UK, but by this time agriculture was well advanced in the "fertile crescent" (northern end of the Persian Gulf to the valley of the River Nile in Egypt) and had reached Greece. Woodland & Hedges - Dense woodland covering most of the countryside. Social Economy - Although the population was essentially nomadic, groups would have been in regular contact exchanging news and goods and searching for suitable partners. The earliest known dwelling in the UK dates from 8,000 BC. The UK would have enjoyed a continental style climate that was warm and dry and that encouraged oak, elm and lime woodland. 5,000 BC ******** Around 8,000 years ago the temperature warmed again and sea levels rose, separating the UK from #mainland Europe. With a warm and wet climate, dense climax woodland consisting of lime and oak developed covering much of the UK. Population - 40,000. Crops - No farmed crops but the population exploited plants producing fruits, berries and seeds. Livestock - None but large wild cattle, red deer, boar and elk were all hunted. Fish and water birds were also important in the diet. Dogs would have been kept to help with hunting and guarding. Farming Systems - Hunter gatherers remained nomadic but would have started to make larger clearings in the woodland in order to drive and catch prey. Woodland & Hedges - Dense woodland covering most of the country. Social Economy - Despite the formation of the channel, trade and social contact with mainland Europe would have been maintained amongst coastal communities with a constant criss crossing of boats. In the UK most of the country was occupied although we have only little evidence of settlements for this period. Climate - Wet and much warmer, possibly by as much as 3°centigrade. 4,000 BC ******** About 6500 years ago the first farmers started clearing the native wildwood and converting the land to agriculture. Trees were killed by "ringing" (either with an axe or by animals browsing) and eventually the stumps rotted away allowing farming to begin. Population, about 80,000 in small farming families and groups organised into farmsteads and hamlets along similar lines to that we see today - namely that the lowland south east of the country was best suited to the production of crops while the more upland areas elsewhere were suited to pastoral farming. Crops - Wheat and barley were most important (grown for flour, stock feed and straw) but some other minor crops were also grown. Soil preparation was by scratching the ground with an ard (a primitive plough that is still in use throughout parts of the world today). Harvested crops were stored in pits which allowed surplus produce to be used at times of need. Storage, more than anything else allowed the development of farming and ultimately civilisation. Livestock - Sheep, goats, cattle and pigs. Dogs were kept in farmsteads and used to hunt deer and other animals. Farming Systems - Systems were based upon a "slash and burn" style of agriculture. New land was cleared and farmed until fertility was exhausted (about 20 years) at which point the farmers moved to clear new land and start afresh. Land that was abandoned then reverted to scrub and woodland before it was cleared again. Woodland & Hedges - Dense woodland still covering most of the country. Social Economy - The period of the early farmers was characterised by small settlements, plain pottery, improved stone tools and woodmanship (coppicing produced regularly sized timber). Neolithic society was also developing with the earliest long barrows and causewayed enclosures dating from this period. Trade in flints, pottery and farmed produce was common. Climate - At the beginning of the period the climate was at an optimum for the generation of deciduous woodland but over the following 1500 years it gradually cooled. 2,000 BC ******** By 4,000 years ago farming systems were well developed and extended to moorland areas that even today we do not farm. Wildwood remained throughout the countryside but was being cleared rapidly on lighter land to make way for farming. During the bronze age there was significant population growth as agriculture expanded throughout most of the country. Recent work suggests that the population may have been much greater than we traditionally believed and may have exceeded 1,000,000 by 2,000 BC. However, within the huge time period of this age, population growth and subsequent decline could have occurred many times as the fertility of farmland became exhausted and food production fell. Crops - Wheat and barley were the main crops being grown for flour, straw, animal feed and malt for alcoholic drinks. Hay was grown for animal feed while straw was used for bedding, thatching and winter fodder. Livestock - Cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. Cattle had always been important with pre-historic farmers but through the bronze age there was an increase in the importance of sheep and goats. These would have been kept for wool, milk and meat. The type of sheep were very similar to the Soay breed of today. Pigs and wild boar remains have been found in farmsteads. Farming Systems - In the 2000+ years since the first farmers arrived large tracts of the wild wood had been cleared and agriculture was transforming the landscape. Evidence shows that large areas of the countryside were laid out in unenclosed fields, usually square that reflected ploughing both ways. Tracks and ways across the countryside allowed trade and the exchange of animals to prevent in-breeding. Woodland & Hedges - The wildwood by this time probably covered 40% of the country. Linear features (eg the Dartmoor reeves) were now common marking boundaries and enclosing small fields. Social Economy - Evidence from the many famous henges that date from this period show that society was well structured and able to call upon a significant population resource to build the many public monuments where religion or ritual was an inseparable part of everyday life. In everyday life pottery was now decorated and noticeably finer and the arrival of metallurgy and the production of bronze led to new tools as well as ornaments and symbols of status. Trade in foodstuffs, tin, leather, tools, baskets, pots, textiles and metal goods was have common. Climate - For much of the bronze age the climate was considerably warmer than today - probably by 2° centigrade. This warmth had a significant affect on agricultural land use and farming was able to extend into the the moors and uplands of Britain. Late in the Bronze Age (around 1000 BC) the climate cooled and became wetter and many of the farming settlements of the upland areas were abandoned, not to be resettled for some 2,500 years. 700 BC ****** By about 700 BC the countryside in many parts of the UK was already owned, managed and planned in much the same way that it is now. Little wildwood remained and the land resource was well planned with field systems in rotation, pasture and coppiced woodland. About 3 million widely dispersed over the countryside and farming most of the land that is currently farmed today. Crops - The range of crops grown had widened considerably since the early bronze age. Although the most important were wheat and barley, oats, tic beans, vetch, peas, rye, flax and fat hen were regularly grown. Storage of crops was either in pits or in raised stores and harvest was over several months - weeds, grain and then straw. Livestock - Sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, poultry, geese and ducks. Horses were a new arrival in the farmsteads but they were not used for work so much as symbols of status. Farming Systems - Farming typically revolved around small hamlets and farmsteads with enclosed rectilinear fields - each having areas of pasture, arable and wood. Ploughing became more efficient with the arrival of the iron share (plough point) and a two field rotation was introduced; crops one year followed by a fallow that was grazed by livestock. This lead to surprisingly high yields and fueled population growth, even though retreat from the uplands had been necessary because of climate deterioration. Woodland & Hedges - In southern parts of the country, most of the wildwood had been cleared and given way to farming or coppice management. In northern parts, or where the ground was particularly unsuitable for agriculture, wildwood remained, but under constant threat. Land around the farmsteads was usually enclosed by hazel fencing or hedging. Social Economy - Efficient farming led to food surpluses and a developing social hierarchy through the period with administration and power centred on the hill forts. Trade would have been buoyant with Europe; exported corn, cattle hides, tin, gold and iron in exchange for wine and olive oil. The first coins appeared although they were more items of wealth and status than trade. There is evidence too of standardised pottery and this suggests that weights and measures were controlled to provide consistency in trade. Climate - The climate of the iron age was much cooler and wetter by comparison with that of the bronze age - but was probably similar to that of today. 100 AD ****** By 100 AD, Roman culture was becoming widely adopted throughout the UK with Celtic chiefs in particular coming to realise the advantages of Roman citizenship. The Romans introduced many innovations to agriculture with improved ploughs, scythes and even a corn harvester but these were of secondary importance to the development of a demand led economy that helped push agricultural output to new peaks. Population, about 4 million settled in towns and over the countryside. Towns were a new feature in the landscape and were both a catalyst for further agricultural production as well as a consequence of it. Out in the countryside the new Roman farms tended to be situated in valleys on the more fertile soils - usually close to markets for easy trading. However, for all the changes of this period, the majority of the population remained directly involved in agriculture and very much on a subsistence basis. Crops - During the Roman period a range of new crops were introduced to UK agriculture and these included cabbage, parsnip and carrots. The new crops complemented the existing crops of wheat, barley, oats, tic beans, vetch, peas, rye, flax and fat hen. Straw and hay crops were also grown and the introduction of the scythe allowed for much higher production. Livestock - No new livestock were introduced during the period but the farming of sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, poultry and geese would have become more organised. Although wheat was the staple diet of the army, farmers were able to do well from supplying livestock produce which was much in demand in the towns amongst the new rich. Apart from meat this would have included leather and textiles. Farming Systems - Farming systems changed through a combination of technological advance and planning. Improved ploughs allowed the cultivation of fertile heavy land while the planning of field systems produced an order and regularity to the countryside that increased output and aided communication. Woodland & Hedges - Woodland cover was approximately 11% of the countryside with little remaining wildwood. Existing woodland was largely in coppice rotation. Hedges and fences enclosed fields cl ose to settlements and farmsteads. Social Economy - The arrival of the Romans brought far reaching socioeconomic changes to the country and not least to agriculture. Coinage was introduced and the Roman army became a significant purchaser of produce. Farmers responded by deliberately growing produce for sale rather than primarily for subsistence - the market economy had begun. Climate - Similar to that of today. 350 AD ****** By 350 AD, most of Britain was closely assimilated into the Roman empire. The countryside was now completely cleared of wildwood and the landscape was settled in an ordered way. Large estates dominated the farming system with cattle ranching, sheep and arable production. Population, about 5 million with a significant urban population engaged in trades and crafts and no longer directly engaged in agriculture. Crops - New crops included walnut and vines whilst efficiency was improved on mainstream crops with new machinery and improved storage. Arable crops would have been grown widely throughout the UK, often far from markets with national surpluses being exported to mainland Europe. Livestock - Livestock farming had grown to a larger scale with more widespread ranching of cattle and larger sheep flocks. Meat, hides and wool were important both for trade within the general population as well as in the supply of the army. Farming Systems - The fourth century was the period of the greatest development of Roman villas, many of which ran to thousands of acres. Some of the land would have been farmed in hand with the balance being let to tenants. Generally speaking agriculture was buoyed by a money economy, efficient transport and urban markets. Woodland & Hedges - The wildwood had been cleared and woodland was managed through coppicing. Hedges, fences and other linear features existed enclosing now larger rectangular fields or marking boundaries close to farmsteads. Social Economy - While the Roman empire was strongly trade orientated it retained strong bonds of social responsibility amongst its citizens. Remains and artifacts of the period indicate widespread trade in metals, pottery, foodstuffs, hides, textiles and what we might best describe as consumer goods. Life in the towns was civilised with baths, sanitation, culture, education and entertainment. However, despite the activity of the period the Empire was under pressure and the UK was exposed to the winds of change. Within a few decades life for the population would change dramatically again and the order and sophistication of the Roman period would elude the UK for another 1000 years. Climate - Similar to that of today. 700 AD ****** By 700 AD the countryside had changed dramatically from the Roman period. Towns had become de-populated and the majority of the population now lived in small farmsteads on a subsistence basis with scrub and woodland regeneration common. Population, in the fifth and sixth centuries there was a massive de-population of the UK. War, disease, political upheaval and emigration all played their part so that by 700 AD the population had fallen to substantially less than 2 million. Crops - The standard cereal crops were grown but by 700 AD the area under arable production had fallen considerably with land reverting to both pasture, scrub and woodland. Innovations in agriculture were few and it would be some time before the common field system was adopted - a change that would develop over the next two centuries and again alter the face of the countryside for generations to come. Livestock - Livestock ranching, common in Roman times would have ceased and livestock would have generally been farmed in small numbers. Peasant farmers "churls" typically cultivated an area of land sufficient for just one or two hides (cattle). Pigs, goats and a few sheep would have been common around the small farmsteads. Farming Systems - The trade that had driven the growth of agriculture in Roman times collapsed and Saxon farming took on a subsistence structure with small farmsteads and peasant farmers who were obligated to a succession of changing landlords. Amongst these was the church which became increasingly powerful following the conversion of the population to christianity. Woodland & Hedges - With population decline and a fall in the intensity of agricultural production, some land reverted to scrub and eventually woodland. Hedges were common in wooded areas but less so elsewhere. Hedging enclosed fields and often defined the new boundaries created through political upheaval. Social Economy - The trade, order and urban economy that had characterised the Roman era had been replaced by a period of political instability and subsistence agriculture. However a new socio-economic order was beginning, this being centred on the church and the monasteries. Climate - Warmer than today with period from 800 AD through to 1300 AD (the mediaeval warm period) being significantly warmer than today. 1100 AD ******* Anglo Saxon rule was replaced by the Normans in 1066 and the Domesday Book that followed in 1086 provides a unique record to assess society, agriculture and the countryside at large. Although the political upheaval of the Norman conquest was dramatic, long running changes had already developed in the late Anglo Saxon period and these were shaping the structure of the countryside. Population, approximately 2.5 million but with a rapid growth over the preceding two centuries. In the countryside small farmsteads started to nucleate, villages formed and the familiar landscape of villages, manor houses and churches took shape. Towns consisting of markets and traders grew up and contained as much as 10% of the population. Crafts and skills developed and prospered, buoyed by a significant surplus of produce in the countryside. Crops - Cultivated land was in the region of 3.5 million hectares (cf. 5.5 million hectares in the year 2000) with grain being sold to local towns as well as for export. There were no new crops but the production system was different with widespread use of the open field system. Livestock - An increasing number of sheep were being kept for wool production with numbers as high as three million by 1100AD. Wool was exported and sold locally for cloth production. Rabbits were introduced and warrens were run commercially for the next 800 years. Norman introductions also included the pheasant and fallow deer. Farming Systems - The open field system developed by the Saxons was widely adopted by 1100AD. Its origin is uncertain but its cooperative nature may have arisen in response to both social and economic factors. Open fields were divided into strips and allocated amongst the community on a changing basis. This gave rise to a ridge and furrow effect across the field where the soil in the strip was continually ploughed back into the centre of itself and away from adjoining strips. During the late Anglo Saxon period a three field system of production was developed. This was a rotation based upon a first crop of wheat, a second crop of an alternative cereal followed by a fallow. This was more productive than its predecessor the two field system where a fallow every other year had left as much as 50% of land unproductive. Woodland & Hedges - Woodland cover was around 15% of the countryside by comparison with 11% now and almost all of this woodland was coppiced. Hedges were more common in western areas or where woodland cover was greater but generally they were not common in areas where the open field system of farming was practised. Social Economy - By the end of the Anglo Saxon period an increasing number of lords had led to a division of the landscape into smaller blocks, more akin to today's parishes, often with a single large manor and its associated church. A complete upheaval of the ruling political class in 1066 meant drastic changes for the population at large and within 20 years more than 4000 English lords were replaced by just 200 barons, almost all of Norman origin. Society was ruled by the French and until 1204 the histories of England and Normandy were interwoven. Norman rule produced new standards in general literacy and record keeping (hence the Domesday Book) which depicts an economy in which money and trade were central but where the wealth of the nation was vested with but a handful of people. 50% of the land was owned by 170 tenants in chief while the King and Church owned most of the balance. Craftsmen and guilds were now common and a widespread trade with France existed - wine and salt were imported while cloth and grain were exported. Climate - Warmer than today with period from 800 AD through to 1300 AD (the medieval warm period) being significantly warmer than today. 1300 AD ****** After three centuries of sustained growth in farming, population, trade, and taxation, crisis was imminent. Increasing demand for food pushed farming to the margin, uplands and woodlands were brought under the plough. The open field system that had provided sustainable production came under huge pressure as peasants struggled with less land and farmsteads became ever smaller. The structure of the countryside was changing again. Population, about 7 million throughout the UK. Although the majority of the population remained directly involved in agriculture or in supporting activities like coppicing and fishing, there were now over 800 towns and these accounted for some 20% of the population. Crops - Corn prices were high in response to demand from a growing population and given the low labour rates, landowners did well. Surprisingly and despite the lack of self sufficiency, a good deal of corn was exported. While land was mostly run on a two or three field arable system, in some places arable cropping would continue for as many as ten years without a fallow break. Such systems stretched fertility to the limit and were unsustainable although the practice of growing peas, beans and vetches for animal feed and to act as a fertiliser for the following cereal crop did help. Oats were widespread throughout the uplands and rye was popular in drier areas. Wheat remained the premium bread crop while barley was grown for malt and beer. Flax and hemp were beginning to be grown again. Livestock - By 1300 AD wool exports had risen to a peak of around 12 million fleeces per annum and the sheep flock had soared to nearly 20 million animals (cf. 20 million breeding ewes today). While wool was the UK's most important industry and was sought after across much of Europe, the sheep played an important additional role in the maintenance of fertility on lowland farms. Horses became much more common and replaced oxen. Horses were quicker at ploughing and at transporting goods via cart over longer distances - a factor that allowed the exploitation of new land far from existing markets. Elsewhere pigs were farmed in woodland clearings known as dens while cattle would be found in the river valleys. Farming Systems - The use of the horse was spreading and while this helped to increase the speed of cultivation there was no real increase in yield. Overall output could only be increased by farming more land - a factor that led to huge areas of marsh, heath, fen and woodland being cleared to make way for agriculture. Agriculture was being pushed to the margin where the effort of production was often greater than the output. As with all organic systems the medieval farmers struggled to maintain fertility. The high cost of foodstuffs prohibited enough livestock being kept through the winter to maintain fertility and this led to lower harvest yields and higher prices which again aggravated the decline in fertility. By 1300 AD the area under cultivation extended to many areas of high moorland and upland that were shortly to be abandoned and remain uncultivated today. Woodland & Hedges - Woodland cover by 1350 AD had fallen in England to around 7%, less than today. However, hedges were becoming more common than in the Saxon period as they demarcated the boundaries of an increasingly structured countryside. Social Economy - By 1300 AD the economy was strongly trade and cash based with over £1 million pounds of coins in circulation and accountants calculating profits. Taxation was also a key part of this market economy which satisfied the King's need for revenue rather more easily than through his owning land direct. The rise of taxation also led to the rise of "parliament" where representatives of the regions would come to London when summonsed to hear of the King's initiatives. Gradually they were afforded more power. In the towns there was a much greater specialisation in crafts and guilds arose which persist today. New professions developed and doctors, lawyers, administrators and clergymen all found a living in the new urban environment. In respect of trade, connections between London and Bordeaux existed with wine being imported in exchange for cloth, leather and corn. A lot of trade was in the hands of Italians who had a more sophisticated financial system and were able to purchase wool from British sellers on futures contracts. Climate - Warmer than today with period from 800 AD through to 1300 AD (the mediaeval warm period) being significantly warmer than today. However around 1290 the climate became colder and less stable and six centuries of much colder weather followed. 1400 AD ******* The prolific growth of three centuries that ended around 1300 AD was followed by a century of collapse. The great famine of 1315-22 and the plague of 1348-50 (known as the black death) decimated the population and altered the face of agriculture. Both events affected the whole of Northern Europe and had a profound impact on both social structure and the countryside. The cumulative effects of the great famine and black death reduced the UK population in a short period of time by 50 % to around 3 million people. Entire communities were lost and population levels did not reach those of 1300 until some three centuries later. Many of the new towns and villages that had formed in the preceding centuries were abandoned and remain unoccupied today. Crops - During the great famine arable crop yields fell dramatically as periods of prolonged wet weather prevented harvest and spoiled quality. Fodder crops were affected too, with much hay being lost or even left uncut. Prices soared and large parts of the peasant population suffered malnutrition. After the black death the much reduced demand for grain lead to marginal arable land being converted to pasture or reverting to scrub, woodland and moor. Although the area of arable declined it did not shrink as much as the population collapse so that food supplies increased relatively, and grain prices began to fall back. Flax became re-established in the UK having been largely absent since Roman times and although its cloth was of poor quality it had a place in the growing textile industry. Livestock - The poor weather of the great famine reduced hay making and led to the premature culling of livestock. Many peasants sold their oxen (at deeply discounted prices) only to find this increased the difficulty of ploughing the following season and subsequent harvests were therefore affected. Periodic bouts of livestock disease affected the cattle and sheep populations as well. After the black death sheep farming and wool production remained the main pastoral activity but patterns of taste changed and wool exports were reduced by war. Increasingly the wool clip was utilised at home in the fast growing textile industry, largely based in towns near fast flowing streams that ran the mills. While wool exports declined, exports of cloth increased. Out in the fields an increase in the use of the horse brought about higher ploughing workrates and assisted in the production of grain from a reduced workforce. Farming Systems - Following the great famine and the black death there was a profound change in farming systems. With a decimated population, peasants who had been bound to their lords suddenly found that they were able to leave for better terms elsewhere. The lords who now found it difficult to find sufficient workers gave up their role as direct producers becoming landlords letting their land out to farmers and tenants who became the main driving force behind change in the countryside typically consolidating their holdings, specialising and building their own homes. As the consolidation of farms began so the practice of enclosing land followed and a new chapter in the development of the countryside began. Woodland & Hedges - The immediate consequence of the collapse of the population was a withdrawal of agriculture from many marginal farming lands. Within a decade, scrub encroachment had replaced previously cultivated and grazed ground and new woodlands formed, many of which remain as ancient semi-natural woodland today. After this initial increase the area of woodland remained broadly stable until about 1850 AD. The practice of enclosure also saw the start of a process that would continue through several centuries creating tens of thousands of miles of new hedgerow. Social Economy - Economic activity in the fourteenth century was already in decline by the time of the great famine. Taxation was on the increase and coupled with higher food prices, poverty was widespread. There was a big increase in crime and through disease and malnutrition around half a million people lost their lives prematurely. Although the affects of the black death were catastrophic they provided new opportunities for the survivors, in particular the poor. Peasants were able to get better paid jobs, married later and in particular had less children. They were also liberated from their family and geographic ties as the availability of work provided social mobility. With the liberation of the lower classes the elite responded with controls and taxes and this created tension. In 1381 the effects of socio economic change were seen in the peasants revolt, a frustrated response to another poll tax rise. Feudal society was under pressure and increasingly peasants were able to negotiate free contracts with their lords rather than living a life of servitude. Farmers, the new force in the countryside paid rents to the lords, specialised and enclosed fields. Enclosure was also practiced by the peasants themselves who collectively agreed to the rearrangements of their holdings in the search for efficiency. By 1400 economic activity was again picking up but it would be three centuries before the population returned to levels of 1300 AD. Climate - By 1290 the warm conditions of the early medieval period had given way to cooler conditions with the period 1315 -22 representing much wetter and colder conditions. Tree ring analysis suggests that a natural disaster somewhere in the world had a profound affect on weather conditions over the whole of Northern Europe. The climate remained colder than today until about 1375 when conditions stabilised. 1600 AD ******* By 1600 AD the economy remained essentially agrarian with the majority of the population still engaged in subsistence agriculture, however recent population growth had created pressure in the countryside with food shortages and a migration to the towns had occurred. As agriculture now occupied nearly all utilisable land, efforts were directed to improving yields through enclosure and enhanced fertility. In 1520 the population of the UK was still barely 3.5 million, a figure comparable to the end of the black death two centuries earlier. However by 1600 the population of the UK had grown to around 6 million and although it continued to grow reaching nearly 8 million by 1650, it then leveled off and declined slightly. The reasons for the decline are not clear although it is thought that the custom of late marriage and crude birth control reduced overall fertility. Nonetheless the consequences of such significant overall population growth were serious with periodic bouts of famine and food price inflation a result. Crops - Wheat, barley, oats and rye. Peas, beans and vetches were grown in rotation to enhance fertility and provide stock feed and other crops like flax were important. Livestock - The sheep industry continued to remain the key livestock industry being essential for maintaining the fertility of the arable area and supplying wool for the cloth industry. Woolen cloth exported via London to North Europe remained the country's most important manufactured output. However for the majority of the population that continued to live in small cottages with a plot of land, pigs, goats and fowl of various kinds were all kept. Farming Systems - With an increased demand for food agriculture responded and an increased area was brought under the plough. Some woodland was again cleared, the fens were drained and marginal upland areas improved and cultivated. Improvements in output were also sought through enclosure and amalgamation of fields and through the use of additional manure (largely supplied by sheep which could be more easily managed in the enclosed fields). Improvements to the rotation also assisted in fertility - arable blocks would be periodically reverted to pasture and manure from the grazing stock enhanced fertility. However, there was a limit to the fertility that could be returned unless livestock numbers were greatly increased and this had not been possible because of the lack of winter fodder (a factor that the more advanced Low Countries had attempted to solve through the use of fodder crops and clover). Woodland & Hedges - Through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries rising demand for firewood and charcoal (consumed in large quantities by the blast furnaces) placed increasing pressure on woodland supplies although with a strong economic rationale for woodland's existence, the area remained broadly stable at around 10%. The total length of hedgerow continued to grow as more fields were enclosed. Social Economy - The rise in the population from about 1500 onwards led to food price inflation way above the rise in wages which impoverished the growing workforce who were increasingly dependant upon paid labour. A major decline in living standards ensued and coupled with high structural unemployment a significant part of the population survived through state aid and scavenging for wild fruit and vegetables. With population migration to the towns and a fair degree of social unrest the State found itself both distrusted and ill equipped to deal with the social consequences of population growth and inadequate food. Climate - Colder than today in a period known as the mini ice age which lasted from 1550 - 1850. 1750 AD ******* The period from 1600 to 1750 AD saw a dramatic change in the nature of agriculture in the UK. Subsistence farming which had dominated for much of the preceding 6000 years gave way to an industry in which innovation and technology became the drivers of output. Population, about 9 million with as many as 750,000 in London by 1750. The majority remained engaged in agriculture or related trades although employment patterns were changing with larger towns and new jobs - in particular retailing. Crops - From about 1650 arable yields increased and Britain became a net exporter of food - a factor that resulted from an increased area under the plough coupled with the maintenance of higher levels of stock and soil fertility. There were many innovations in the arable farming sector. Prior to the invention of the seed drill in 1701 by Jethro Tull, all seed was broadcast randomly into the furrows by hand. This was deeply inefficient, in some areas high distribution rates wasted seed while in others there was inadequate for a crop at all. The seed drill distributed seed via a rotating cylinder into ploughed furrows and then closed the furrow up - a process that created a more regular and higher yielding crop. There were further innovations in mechanisation and a four course rotation was developed: wheat, root crop, barley and then grass where the root crop offered fodder to over-wintering livestock that manured the ground. A number of new crops were being grown more widely and these included: potatoes, broccoli, cauliflower and spinach. Livestock - The four course crop rotation which had been developed by "Turnip Townsend" greatly assisted livestock farmers too. Whereas winter rations of hay and straw were adequate to keep only a few stock, the much higher yielding root crops allowed much larger numbers to be over-wintered. This meant that stock could be slaughtered throughout the winter and fresh meat was available for most of the year. Prior to this it had been custom to slaughter most of the stock in the autumn so that they could be salted for preservation over the winter months. Farming Systems - Aside from the many innovations and new crops that found their way into practice the agricultural industry was changing. Specialisation became more common and as farmers took fuller advantage of the soil and topography of their own area, regional specialisation's emerged which to this day remain largely unchanged. Agricultural societies and shows sprang up and these communicated the innovations and technological advances to a wider farming community. Despite the progress there remained an inherent conservatism amongst farmers and many ideas were only adopted long after they had already been commonly accepted in the Low Countries. The practice of enclosure reached a new level of activity and small farmers often found themselves landless and dispossessed having been forced to sell out to much larger capitalist farmers who were now coming to dominate agriculture. Woodland & Hedges - The area of woodland remained broadly stable at around 10% while the total length of hedgerow continued to grow as more fields were enclosed. Social Economy - By 1750 far reaching change to the social structure of Britain had taken place through the growth of towns. Towns no longer acted as a market place for local goods but now provided goods of both national and international origin in addition to professional, cultural and recreational services. International trade and financial services were well advanced and the South Sea Bubble of 1720 is indicative of a moneyed sophistication, all too reminiscent of the dot com crash. It was upon the back of this trade and the supply of services that the professional middle classes emerged and where the primacy of land declined within an increasingly commercialised economy. Climate - Colder than today in a period known as the mini ice age which lasted from 1550 - 1852. 1850 AD ******* The industrial revolution transformed the landscape and led to Britain becoming the world's first urban nation. Railways, new roads and an improving transport infrastructure provided fresh food for fast growing towns while imported produce from around the world provided a greatly more diverse diet. Increasingly however, the countryside became a remote and distant environment to an industrialised society. By 1850 the population of the mainland UK had grown to 21 million with 2.3 million living in London. Over 50% of the population lived in towns which were growing at an increasing rate. Britain was now unique in the world in being essentially an urban nation. By 1900 the proportion of urban dwellers had grown to 80%. Crops - Technological developments took place across the whole spectrum of mechanisation with reaping and threshing machines, new ploughs and drills. Nitrogen fertiliser (guano) was imported from Chile and widely used by the mid 19th century with manufactured sulphate of ammonia and superphosphate in use in the latter part of the century. Agricultural productivity also rose on the back of the increase in the use of roots crops and potatoes and urban demand created new markets for vegetables and salad crops. Livestock - Wool for centuries the foundation of the textile industry was declining in importance with the advent of cotton. Textiles manufactured from cotton were easier to mechanise which allowed higher output and greater profit - albeit for only a brief period before the competitive advantage would be lost to a new innovation elsewhere. The textile industry was however a source of technology transfer and developments were quickly exported to other industries where the advantages of mechanisation raised output. While wool was of declining importance the market for meat and milk grew and farmers responded with higher output beef and dairy systems founded largely on the use of root crops. Farming Systems - The Corn Laws which had been introduced from the beginning of the nineteenth century to protect British farmers from international trade, pushed up the price of wheat and made bread expensive. This was unpopular with manufacturers who wanted to be able to pay lower wages and who saw cheaper bread as a way of achieving this. In 1846 amidst the potato famine and widespread pressure for their removal, the Corn Laws were repealed and imports resumed. The agricultural interest had been checked but in a period of technological advance the industry was able to ride out the competition with improved yields and lower production costs. Capital spending on drainage, buildings, machinery and roads linking to the railways (8,000 miles by 1850) all fueled the agricultural revolution with British farmers at least twice as efficient as their European contemporaries. As with all farming systems, such progress is often punctuated with crisis as the potato blight of the 1840's illustrated. During 1845, 46 and 48 blight decimated the potato crop in Ireland and up to a million died from malnutrition and in the decade that followed a further 2 million emigrated. The inadequacy of the British response to the calamity induced a bitterness in Ireland that persists today. What price a fungicide? In 1860, 80% of food consumed was still produced in the UK but by the 1870s after a series of bad harvests and the arrival of imports from the prairies, farm gate prices fell dramatically and the great agricultural depression ensued. Lasting for nearly thirty years significant rural depopulation resulted and where previously the workforce had known, understood and been involved in country ways, the new workforce were migrants with only a transient interest. There were few to speak for agriculture and as rural Britain became depopulated so the countryside became a plaything for the rich. By 1900 the majority of food and raw materials were imported. Woodland & Hedges - By 1800 charcoal use was declining in favour of coal and coppicing as a method of woodland management declined. With a lower economic rationale to woodland, a significant part of the area of ancient woodland that had existed since the Black Death was cleared to make way for agriculture or for modern forestry in the form of softwood plantations. Many new species of tree and shrub were introduced and some of these now dominate the landscape. Between 1750 and 1850 the enclosure of land had continued with some 200,000 miles of new hedge being planted. Often comprised of almost exclusively hawthorn these new demarcations were unpopular as peasants were dispossessed of their small holdings and in becoming landless forced to find work in the cities. The search for efficiency was concerned not just with enclosing new land - hedgerow removal was also leading to larger field sizes. Social Economy - The 19c was dominated by international trade, commercialism and industrialisation with Britain's large urban workforce providing a huge stimulus for the world economy. A large proportion of trade was based on import and subsequent export and supported by service industries like banking that improved the balance of payments with invisibles. Free trade also led to an economic boom and by the 1880's a significant part of the population were enjoying leisure time and rising prosperity. Wage rates had increased, the birth rate fell and diets improved with meat, milk, veg, bread, potatoes and beer all becoming more widely available. UK agriculture remained fundamental in the supply of foodstuffs but its influence was waning in the economy as a whole and land, once identified with power, became just another asset. In 1850 agriculture accounted for 20% of national income but by 1900 this had fallen to just 6%. Climate - From 1850 the climate warmed to that we know today. 1960 AD ****** Another technological revolution was underway as agriculture pursued increased output and greater security of supply. With rationing still fresh in the public's mind, the industry responded to government initiatives derived from the 1947 Agriculture Act. Improved stock and plant breeding, the greater use of fertiliser and pesticides and a move away from more extensive forms of production saw yields rise. Population, 52 million largely urban based. Crops - Plant breeding, machanisation and agronomy all led to improved yields with wheat up 35% in a decade to an average of 4 tonnes per hectare. Inputs of purchased fertiliser and pesticide complimented a growing understanding of the science of crop production. Operations were increasingly mechanised and the arable labour force declined. But in this climate of supported prices the quest for profit encouraged some farmers to turn their back on good practice and shelve rotations. Known as the barley barons they resorted to continuously grown barley - a practice that was common in the 1970's. Livestock - Silage as a conserved feedstuff was replacing hay and breeding initiatives in the beef and dairy sectors saw the demise of dual purpose animals in favour of higher output specialised breeds. Grants for farmers encouraged mechanisation and the development of larger more intensive livestock buildings. The practice of most farms maintaining a few pigs and beef animals declined in favour of more specialised units and factory farming began. Farming Systems - Agriculture was supported by various Acts, initially the 1947 Agriculture Act and grant funding and price support greatly empowered the modern era of agriculture with new technology, specialisation, improved breeding and management all pushing output in the new revolution. Not all was well however, and Rachel Carson's book "Silent Spring" paved the way for a wider concern about farming and the environment. In 1972 Britain joined the EEC and after a transitional period agricultural policy fell within the remit of the CAP which encouraged wasteful surpluses and amidst only slow reform widened the gulf between agriculture and consumer. Woodland & Hedges - Ancient woodland made way for agriculture and forestry fueled by government initiatives and a significant proportion was lost between 1950 and 1970. Hedgerows suffered a similar fate and thousands of miles were lost in the search for an efficiency and food sufficiency that the post war policy makers sought. While the enclosure of land and planting of hedges centuries earlier had been often deeply unpopular, so the removal of the same hedges in the interests of efficiency was also to prove no less controversial. In 1965 dutch elm disease revisited and within two decades most of the countryside's most important hedgerow tree was lost. Social Economy - Agriculture was still an important industry in the economy and represented some 3% of GDP, but where output was rapidly rising on the back of new technology and mechanisation the agricultural workforce declined and rural depopulation resulted. Climate - Slightly cooler than today. 2000 AD ******* Population 59 million. Crops - Mainstream crops included wheat, barley, oats, oil seed rape, potatoes and sugar beet with an increasing range of horticultural and speciality crops but all subject to fierce international competition and very low prices. No energy crops were grown as the tax regime discouraged their introduction. Livestock - The industry was in the grip of a spate of crippling diseases that included BSE, swine fever, foot and mouth and TB in cattle. Legislation and red tape were burdening economic recovery in this sector and leading to rationalisation with fewer and fewer producers. Despite this, production methods were becoming more welfare friendly with UK producers leading the way internationally. Farming Systems - Integrated farming and organic farming were increasingly adopted amidst a new direction that was sought by policy makers and farmers alike. Severe financial pressure existed with nominal prices for products often the same as those 30 years earlier despite 5 times cost inflation during the period. With farm incomes at crisis point, consolidation of the industry's workforce was under way with a significant skills loss and depopulation of the rural workforce. Agriculture was continuing to decline as a land use (down 5% in 40 years) and was giving way to leisure and urban development. Patterns of ownership and management were changing too with a small number of highly mechanised contract farmers beginning to dominate production. Woodland & Hedges - The woodland area stood at 11%, greater than the medieval period some seven centuries earlier and similar to the Roman period (albeit of different species composition). Hedgerow length had increased since the early 1990's, a fact not widely appreciated at the time. Social Economy - Internationalised economy with an urban population disconnected from agriculture and unconvinced by the need for support of an industry that provided less than 1% of GDP and employed only 2% of the workforce. Despite this agriculture still accounted for 70% of UK land and provided an overall sufficiency in food products of 65%. Climate - Warming gradually. Sources: Jim Barton (by email) uk.rec.history en.wikipedia.org